Sam Forbes
Religion 202
Midterm
An Interdependent Proposal
Of the many lessons taught in various traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism, one key teaching is that separating, categorizing, and labeling reality is a form of ignorance and inevitably leads to misunderstanding. In the East, this is seen as a universal principle and can be applied to anything, so it seems wise to apply it to the definition of religion itself, especially with regards to the traditions stemming from this area of the world. Theodore Ludwig’s division of “the basic dimension of religion” into three separate parts is thus, though a good place to begin, ultimately problematic. The three categories (sacred story, worlds of meaning, and ritual practices and the good life)i not only overlap, they are interdependent, to use the Buddhist term. They depend upon each other, support each other, and weave together the reality of the tradition in question. Thich Nhat Hanh writes in The Miracle of Mindfulness, that all things are mutually dependentii, and so when defining anything, including religion, it is important to take this into account. Sacred stories inevitably create their own worlds of meaning. Worlds of meaning are often the foundation of rituals. Again, rituals maintain these sacred stories in community consciousness, but only if the meaning is understood. If this seems complex, well, it is. This is the problem with trying to divide and define something as fluid as religion. This is the main, though not only difficulty with Ludwig’s proposal.
There is another great problem with Ludwig’s proposal, which is how each category is to be weighted. In other words, some traditions value one of these categories far over others. For example, ritual is the very basis of the Vedic tradition; their rituals are very complex, expensive and extensive as seen with the Agnicayanaiii in which many substances are offered to Agni, god of fire, over many days involving many altarsiv. In other traditions, ritual is downplayed, if not outright rebelled against, such as the case of the Upanishadic traditions which were a reaction to the spiritual monopoly the Brahmins enjoyed through controlling these Vedic practices. In these new traditions, the emphasis was placed on meditation and other yogic practices which work toward the realization of atman to attain liberation from samsarav, or moksha, summed up in the famous spiritual equation: “tat tvam asi,” proclaiming that in truth your self is Brahman, is everythingvi. In meditative traditions such as these, there is less room for ritual; rather the emphasis is placed on meaning. But even in this simple case, it can be seen that the Upanishadic traditions would not have come into being if it were not for the previous Vedic traditions. Thus the two are related, they are interdependent; even in their rebellion, Upanishadic traditions accept Vedic scriptures and both fall into the same family: Hinduism.
In short, Ludwig’s proposal, though it contains the elements necessary to define these Eastern religions, ignores the realities these traditions create in their own teachings by ignoring the all-encompassing notion of interdependence. Thus his system of three-fold division can work, but only by recognizing that the three are not independent entities. Rather, they are intimately connected and cannot and should not be taken in isolation. By severing this connection, damage is done to the student’s understanding of the religions being studied.
Hindu and Buddhist traditions contain sacred stories which act as the basis for their beliefs and practices. In the case of Hinduism, this notion becomes quite complex as no single founder of the religion can be traced. Nonetheless, stories and legends abound. One of the main stories which provides a metaphysical context for the Vedic tradition is that of Purusha, a Sanskrit word which literally translates as “man” or “being.vii” Purusha is sacrificed and his various limbs and parts create or explain different phenomena of the universe such as animals, people, and so forthviii. This creation story provides a model for the practice of Vedic ritual sacrifice and indeed the Vedas themselves are instructions on how to perform these correctly so as to receive the wished-for results. What is most important to note here is that one cannot separate Vedic stories, such as that of sacrifice of Purusha, from Vedic practices, such as the sacrifice of soma, ghee, and even animals to the gods above. However, sacrificial ritual is but one of a vast number of beliefs and practices that stem from sacred stories within Hinduism.
The Hindu tradition contains literally millions of gods and goddesses, one of the most popular being Krishna. Devotees of Krishna are well familiar with the stories of his life. These tales are catalysts not for ritual sacrifice but rather for finding a meaning to one’s existence, or as Ludwig puts it, a “world of meaning.” For a Hindu, this meaning is found by striving for moksha, or liberation from the suffering cycle of samsara. Devotion to Krishna is a type of Bhakti Yoga, one of three main paths to liberation (along with Jnana Yoga and Karma Yoga).ix Devotional practice is built upon sacred stories. The story of Krishna, for example his role as an adorable, flute-playing baby or his role as Krishna Gopala, the young seducer of gopis, or his more serious dialogue with Arjuna on the eave of the battle of Kuruksetra that makes up the famous Bhagavad Gita are foundations for different Bhakti paths. Through the story of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna enforces the necessity to act in accord with one’s dharma to the distraught Arjuna who wishes to flee the battle rather than kill his beloved relativesx. It is difficult to understate the importance of this text to the Hindu world. It is simply unrealistic to look at it in isolation as it has so, so many effects on it’s readers, Hindu and non-Hindu alike. These effects are not even limited to the spiritual realm. The Bhagavad Gita shows the need for everyone to follow their dharma so that society can function through maintaining a system of classes and by nourishing the psychological well-being of those within that system.xi Ironically, Mahatma Gandhi himself used Karma Yoga and deep faith in the Bhagavad Gita in his struggle for Indian independence, rebelling against the system seemingly upheld by this greatest of all Indian texts. Again, stories cannot be separated from the meanings made and effects produced by their words.
Buddhism, in contrast to Hinduism, has a historical founder, Siddhartha Gautamaxii. Siddhartha’s hagiography, a sacred story, is key to Buddhist beliefs and practices due to it’s highly symbolic meaning. It is impossible to separate the legendary life story of the to-be Buddha Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha, from the teachings and symbolism the story contains. For example, upon leaving his pleasure palace, Siddhartha comes across a sick person, an old person, a corpse and a shramana, or renunciate. These four sights compel him to leave his palace in search of a spiritual path.xiii This tale of renunciation is key to early Indian Buddhism, to all of Buddhism actually, for it is the prince’s first glimpse of the suffering nature of samsara. This then is connected to the first of the Four Noble Truths, that life is characterized by suffering.xiv The Four Noble Truths contain vast meaning for Buddhists around the world and are the very basis of Buddhist thought. It is said that all of Buddha’s 84,000 teachings are contained within the Four Noble Truths. Once again, sacred stories, such as Buddha’s life story, cannot be read without understanding the meaning they create and their impact on the world.
When Siddhartha finally leaves his palace, one of the first acts he does as a renunciate is shave his head. This defining moment is enacted again and again marking the passage of monks and nuns from the laity into monastic life. It is even considered in some traditions to be the first meditation a monk or nun performs.xv This is a transformation of legend into ritual. It brings the story alive for the community and makes tangible a key part of Buddhist philosophy: renunciation. Renunciation is especially important to early Indian Buddhism with its emphasis on monastic life.
In fact, all early Indian Buddhist sutras are essentially meanings conveyed through stories and analogies. For example, the famous parable Milinda-panhaxvi, where Nagasena shows the Bactrian King Milinda that everything is empty of inherent existence, is a story meant to illustrate a philosophical principle key to the Buddhist world view. This world view expands and is elaborated on with the development of a new form of Buddhism, the Mahayana.
Once again, in Mahayana Buddhism, we find new sacred stories to convey new ideals. One of these new ideals is that of the bodhisattva, a Sanskrit word often translated as “being bound for enlightenment.” “Bodhi” refers to enlightenment, “sattva” to being. Bodhisattvas are characterized by great compassion and will do anything and everything to ensure the welfare of others. This new world of meaning is brought to life in the jataka tales.xvii Two of the most famous of these new sacred stories are the Deer Jataka and the Hungry Tigress Jataka. Both illustrate the bodhisattva’s immense compassion through his sacrifice of self to aid or save the lives of others. For example, in the Hungry Tigress Jataka, a tigress has just given birth to cubs, but she is so emaciated that she considers killing and eating her own litter to satisfy her hunger. The Buddha-to-be because of his great compassion cannot bear the sight, and so he decides to sacrifice himself as the tigress’ next meal so that both she and her cubs will survive. This powerful story illustrates a new Mahayana ideal of complete, selfless compassion, one of the most important new concepts or meanings in the Mahayana path. This story is used as inspiration, not to feed oneself to a tiger necessarily, but to cultivate compassion in the practitioner. This great compassionate wish was not part of early Indian Buddhism.
Mahayanists were critical of the early Indian Buddhist ideal of the arhat, claiming that striving for one’s enlightenment alone without helping others was selfish. This view is likely to have stemmed from a group known as the Mahasamghikas, a liberal faction of Buddhist thought.xviii In order to give new meaning and purpose to one’s life, the selfless model of the bodhisattva was created and it was through stories such as the Jataka Tales that brought this meaning to life. We again see this interdependent relationship between story and meaning in one’s life in the Lotus Sutra’s Parable of the Burning House. This parable is meant to illustrate the superiority of the Mahayana over “Hinayana” teachings (“Hinayana” is a derogatory term for early Indian Buddhism, literally meaning “lesser vehicle” in Sanskrit). In the story, a man saves his children from a burning house by promising them three chariots, which wait for them outside. Upon hearing this, the children rush out of the dangerous place to find only one chariot outside. The three promised chariots represent the three Buddhist vehicles, the third being the supreme vehicle presented in the Lotus Sutra, sometimes referred to as the Second Turning of the Wheel of Dharma.xix This single chariot represents the bodhisattva vehicle and the story is meant to illustrate that this vehicle alone is enough to release one from samsara.
Throughout Buddhism and Hinduism in India, sacred stories, worlds of meaning, and ritual practices are inseparable. They share an interdependent relationship, that is to say, each effects the other in both obvious and subtle ways. Ludwig’s proposal of separating these categories is simplistic at best and naïve at worst. The answer to this problem is to present these three categories in conjunction with each other. For a complete representation of a religion, especially an Eastern religion, one must be aware of interdependence by showing how all parts of the tradition are connected. The categories Ludwig creates work, but only if presented in this way. This method is also superior in that it teaches this key concept by putting it to use. Interdependence is not left on the chalkboard but is brought to life through its use as a tool.
iLudwig, 10
iiHanh 55
iiiAltar of Fire
ivStaal 71
vFieser 27: Yama’s Instructions to Naciketas, v. 18 “The wise one is not born, does not die; it does not come from anywhere, does not become anything. It is unborn, enduring, permanent; this one is not destroyed when the body is destroyed.”
viIbid 32: “Just as a clay jar or vessel is understood to be nothing but clay, so this whole universe, born of Brahman, essentially Brahman, is Brahman only – for there is nothing else but Brahman, nothing beyond That. That is the reality. That is our Atman. Therefore, “That is you” – pure, blissful, supreme Brahman, the one without a second.” – Shankara’s Crest Jewel of Discrimination
viiibid 15
viii ibid: Rig Veda: “The Man had a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet. He pervaded the earth on all sides and extended beyond it as far as ten fingers. It is the Man who is all this, whatever has been and whatever is to be. He is the ruler of immortality, when he grows beyond everything through food.”
ixLecture, January 20, 2009
xBasham 82
xiLudwig 85 Bhagavad Gita 18:47 “Better to do one’s duty imperfectly than to do another man’s well; doing action intrinsic to his being, a man avoids guilt.”
xiiLecture, January 22, 2009
xiiiFieser 74 “Channa, for countless ages I have enjoyed sensual objects of sight, sound, color, flavor, and touch, in all their varieties; But they have not made me happy…. Realizing this, I will embark on the raft of dharma, which is steadfast, endowed with the range of austerities, good conduct, equanimity, effort, strength, and generosity, which is sturdy, made of the firmness of effort, and strongly held together.” – Siddhartha, Lalita-vistara
xivIbid 76 “Now this, O monks, is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering, old age is suffering, death is suffering, sorrow, grieving, dejection, and despair are suffering. Contact with unpleasant things is suffering, not getting what you want is also suffering. In short, the five aggregates of grasping are suffering.”
xvBuddhism: The Footprint of the Buddha
xviFieser 89 “Sire, I am known as Nagasena; my fellow religious practitioners, sir, address me as Nagasena. But although [my] parents gave [me] the name of Nagasena… still is is only a designation, a name, a denotion, a conventional expression, since Nagasena is only a name because there is no person here to be found.” – from Milinda-panha
xviiLecture, February 3, 2009
xviiiibid
xixFieser 101, “Therefore, Shariputra, the Tathagata, who is just like that strong-armed man who… employed skillful means to coax his children from the burning house… speaks of three vehicles: the hearer’s vehicle, the solitary realizer’s vehicle, and the bodhisattvas’ vehicle… So the Tathagata is not a liar when he uses skillful means, first holding out the prospect of three vehicles and then leading beings to final nirvana by means of a single great vehicle.” – Saddarma-pundarika-sutra.
