Sam Forbes
Religion 202
Final Exam
Ideals for the World
The various traditions of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism are all methods to correct perceived flaws in their practitioners’ internal and external worlds. There is a human sense of dissatisfaction or longing throughout these traditions which makes this notion of flaw relevant even today. In his book, The Sacred Paths of the East, Theodore Ludwig writes that religion is “a path of ultimate transformation,” and with regard to these three traditions he is correcti. Each of these three religions attempt to solve problems within the practitioner and in the world through philosophies and paths exemplified by their model of the ideal person. In some cases these problems were closely tied to the time period in which the religion developed or in reaction to another rival philosophy. In Buddhism, the ideal person takes the form of a buddha, bodhisattva, or arhat, depending on the tradition. This change also reflects adaptation to and inclusion of indigenous beliefs. For Taoists, this ideal is seen as the sage and in Confucianism, the noble man. Each of these paths required inner transformation to repair a discord between the world and the practitioner, bringing this ideal into reality. Although each path is unique, in form they are alike in that each contain a human problem, an ideal or goal, and a path that practitioners follow to attain this goal.
Buddhism has taken countless forms throughout Asia and more recently in the West, but the problem to be solved has remained constant: suffering. Suffering is an aspect of the human condition which, upon reflection, can be seen in everyone’s life even today. In The First Sermon, the historical Buddha expounded the Four Noble Truths which culminate in a path or remedy to the problem of suffering, the Fourth Noble Truth.ii Traditions in India, China and Japan have interpreted what is meant by “path” in countless ways; examples include those of early Indian, Huayan and Pure Land Buddhism. Although ending suffering is the principle goal, each path and its ideal person vary considerably.
Samsara, or cyclic existence, was the principle concern of the early Indian Buddhists along with its myriad sufferings. In India at the time of the historical Buddha, samsara was a given, that is, it was a “fact” of existence.iii The Buddha observed that beings transmigrate from life to life conditioned by their actions or karma, which in turn are conditioned by their ignorance and attachment. Samsara is seen as a beginningless and endless cycle of sorrow, in which beings take rebirth and die over and over again until liberation is attained. Samsara develops according to the model of the Twelve Dependent-Related Links, in which beings circle around and around due to these mental afflictions.iv Although Buddhist texts are laden with images of suffering, the message is one of hope via a path to liberation from the samsara.
The Noble Eightfold Path contained within the Fourth Noble Truth was seen as a method to transform one’s actions and intentions thus leading one out of this cycle of suffering to the far shore of nirvana.v Nirvana is extremely difficult to describe, but several early analogies survive, including a rather famous one likening it to a fire that has been snuffed out.vi It is thus hard to speak of an “end” to this path as, according to early Indian Buddhists, the Buddha does not “go” anywhere, nor does he vanish. However, there are many who are said to have “attained” this state, the various arhats.
As Buddhism developed, a new conception came about, the Mahayana. The Mahayana, or “Great Vehicle”, was seen as more accessible to the laity as devotional practices were emphasized and strict monastic discipline was viewed as optional. This was an especially effective philosophy in China where leaving one’s home and family was looked down upon. A new ideal person also came about, the bodhisattva, often translated as “being bound for enlightenment.”
The meaning of the word, “bodhisattva,” changes from early Indian to Mahayana Buddhism. According to early Indian Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a previous incarnation of the historical Buddha as seen in his many jataka tales.vii In Mahayana traditions, however, bodhisattva refers to any being on the path to enlightenment because, theoretically, any determined practitioner could be a future buddha. Bodhisattvas are characterized by great compassion, forgoing their own nirvana until every sentient being is liberated and are thus seen as an ideal for the Mahayanist to strive to become.viii Compassion is seen today as an important moral concept and can be found in fields ranging from religion, diversity to medical ethics. It is thus just as relevant today as it was then.
Huayan Buddhism, a Mahayana school from China, perceives the path to end suffering in a new way. Huayan world view is depicted in the example of Indra’s Jeweled Net, in which everything is interconnected and interpenetrating.ix It resembles new ideas in the field of ecology. These are key especially today as scientists attempt to conserve natural habitats. Huayan logic may prove a useful tool outside of a religious context. According to Huayan thought, if all is connected, perfecting one practice of the bodhisattva is tantamount to completing them all. Through seeing reality as it is, one is released from suffering. This is done by realizing one’s Buddha nature. The Huayan path is a synthesis of philosophies stemming from the early Indian Buddhist traditions, Taoist thought and a text known as The Awakening of Faith in Mahayana.”x The origin of enlightenment was known as the tathagatagarbha, or “buddha-seed,” which ripens when one perceives this interconnection of all phenomena. Selfhood, or viewing things as separate, is a form of ignorance; eradicating this ignorance helps one see interpenetration. In the case of Huayan Buddhism, the nature of reality and liberation are thus closely connected. In the Huayan tradition, a bodhisattva’s path consists of 52 stages, but due to their new view of interdependence, only one need be completed to accomplish the final goal.xi Through interconnection, one is more acutely aware of the suffering of others, and so compassion along with wisdom realizing the nature of reality become central to Huayan philosophy. In Japan, a radically new type of Buddhism formed in which faith, rather than practice was the main vehicle to liberation.
Similar to the accommodation of Buddhism to fit the Chinese “worldly” taste and family structure, Buddhism in Japan adapted itself to the culture and situation there. Part of this transformation of the tradition was the development of Pure Land Buddhism. The socio-political situation in Japan was horrendous and violent; some Buddhist monastics of the time, most notably Shinran, felt this situation may even be the mappo, or “degenerate age.”xii Instead of complex practices and philosophies, Shinran felt faith was the only way to ensure enlightenment, specifically faith in Amida, his vows and Pure Land.xiii Shinran’s path was thus radically different than any previous school found in India or even China. Instead of aiming for such high goals as enlightenment in the present life, Shinran proposed and preached that one must first take rebirth in the Western Paradise. Even more radically, he claimed that faith must come as a gift from Amida, not through one’s own efforts due to the heavy afflictions of sentient beings in the current age.xiv Contrary to Huayan, Pure Land emphasized the compassion of an other-power, rather than that of self-power.
Just as Pure Land Buddhism developed in Japan during a time of much conflict and confusion, so too did Confucianism in China. Confucius (551 – 479 BCE) lived during the waning of the Zhou dynasty and felt great dismay due to the lawlessness of his time.xv Accordingly, he created a philosophical system to right the trouble he perceived. Today we see much conflict all around the world and such was the case even 2500 years ago in ancient China. Confucius’ advice is thus likely to be relevant today. From a Confucian point of view, the cause of conflict then and now is a lack of morality and virtue in people’s hearts.
As Buddhism considered suffering the the principle problem with human existence, Confucius felt the main affliction was lack of social order.xvi To correct this problem, he advocated intense study of texts, respect for one’s elders, and the cultivation of moral virtues. His writings have a distinctively political flavor, especially those concerning the correct conduct for officials and even the emperor himself.xvii Virtue was the great savior and hope for the Chinese people to lift them out of conflict. The ideal person was the virtuous junzi, or “noble man.” He is characterized by benevolence, intellectual prowess and wisdom.xviii
Neo-Confucianism, a later development in China, was a grand synthesis of the philosophies of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. This new tradition, an extension of the old, emphasized transcending the world, cosmology, as well as human nature and focused more on the religious rather than the political.xix It fulfilled a gap in Confucian thought, that is, it gave this popular philosophy a decidedly more mystical tone and wider appeal as Taoism and especially Buddhism took root in China. Li Ao, one of the scholars who influenced Neo-Confucianism felt that human nature was in essence transcendent.xx The seven feelings of joy, anger, pity, fear, love, hate and desire obscured this transcendent nature, mirroring Huayan Buddhism’s notion of ignorance and attachment blocking the radiance of one’s buddha-seed. The path in Neo-Confucianism resembles that of Buddhist mindfulness; one must master these emotions, not to end suffering, but to develop Confucian virtues to the full, namely goodness, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.xxi
A radical alternative to Confucianism in ancient China was Taoism. Taoism eventually split into two quite distinct groups, one focused on philosophy, the other on religious practice. According to followers of philosophical Taoism, rooted textually in the Tao Te Ching by the mythical Lao Tzu, the problem with society is was not too little structure but too much.xxii To remedy this, one practiced wu wei, or “non-action,” in the sense of not striving, struggling with life nor fighting the natural world.xxiii This is a difficult idea to conceptualize, but is likened to the beauty found in the uncarved block or a useless, gnarled tree.xxiv Like Confucianism, Taoism was a reaction to the conflict of the time, which declared that less government would produce better results. The Tao, or “Way,” is believed to be nameless, the source of all things, yielding and feminine.xxv The ideal person, the Sage, lives in accord with the Tao and acts spontaneously and naturally while renouncing society. By remaining natural, balanced, and accepting, one lives a long, healthy and content life.
Indeed, long life was one of the principle concerns for religious Taoists, for which they produced many techniques including internal alchemy (meditation), acupuncture and so forth.xxvi In religious Taoism, we find more conventional, worldly practices such as the gymnastics, magic, breath control and the creation of talismans, as well as mythical stories of xian, or “immortals,” ideal beings that epitomize this goal of longevity.xxvii
These three major East Asian religions, Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, are just as relevant today as they were hundreds of years ago. Indeed, many people consider themselves practitioners both in the East and the West. As our world becomes more interconnected, communication effortless, and as problems multiply, many turn to religion to find a path and an ideal to follow. Whether one views the troubles of society as rooted in suffering, lack of virtue or unnatural structure, each of these paths can provide the answers and meaning followers seek. This ideal person changes not only from tradition to tradition, but also from place to place and according to time period. As indigenous beliefs and inclinations are assimilated, the traditions adapt to suit people in the most effective way. Ultimately, religion is a human creation. It is meant to address the problems of society by looking inward, rather than outward. The compassion of Buddhism, the discipline of Confucianism and the spontaneity of Taoism are inner transformations that practitioners must pursue to attain their final goal.
iLudwig 10
ii“4. Now this, O monks, is the noble truth of the path that leads to the cessation of suffering: This is the noble eight fold path…. Now monks, as long as my threefold knowledge and insight regarding these noble truths… were not well purified, so long, O monks, I was not sure that in this world… I had attained the highest complete awakening.” – Samyutta-nikaya, Fieser 77
iiiLudwig 115
ivMizuno 60
v“Monks, I do not state that is comes nor that it goes. It neither abides nor passes away. It is not caused, established, arisen, supported. It is the end of suffering….” – Udana, Fieser 79
vi“But, Vaccha, if someone were to ask you – ‘Regarding that fire that was in front of you and that has been put out, in which direction has fire gone from here: to the east, west, north, or south’ – what would you reply to this question, Vaccha?” “Gotama, it does not apply. Gotama, the fire burned because of a supply of grass and sticks, but due to having totally consumed this and due to a lack of fuel, it is said to be put out since it is without fuel.” – Majjhima-nikaya, Fieser 82
viiQuiz Section
viii“…Subhuti, bodhisattvas, great beings, should train thus, ‘In order to benefit all the world, I will dwell in suchness; and establishing all sentient beings in suchness, I will lead the immeasurable realms of sentient beings to nirvana.” – Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita-sutra. Fieser 94
ix“If we now arbitrarily select one of these jewels for inspection and look closely at it, we will discover that in its polished surface there are reflected all the other jewels in the net, infinite in number.” Cook 2
xLecture, March 3, 2009
xi ibid
xiiBloom 306
xiiiBloom 308
xiv“…however good a man may be, hi is incapable, with all his deeds of goodness, of effecting his rebirth in Amida’s Land of Recompense… Even the rebirth of good men is impossible without being helped by Amida’s specfic Vow issuing from his great love and compassion which are not at all of this world.” Bloom 309
xvFieser 121
xviQuiz Section
xvii“Examining into antiquity, we find that the Emperor Yao was called Fang Xun. He was reverent, intelligent, accomplished, sincere and mild. He was sincerely respectful and capable of modesty… He was able to make bright his virtue, and bring affection to the nine branches of family. When the nine branches of family had become harmonious, he distinguished and honored the hundred clans… The numerous people were amply nourished and prosperous and became harmonious.” – The Book of History, Fieser 129
xviii“The Master said, ‘The noble man (junzi) seeks neither a full belly nor a comfortable home. He is quick in action but cautious in speech. He goes to men possessed of the Way (dao) to be put right. Such a man can be described as eager to learn.” – The Analects, Fieser 131
xixKim 337
xx“…that whereby a man may become a sage in his nature (hsing). That whereby a man may betray his nature are the feelings (chi’ing).” – Li Ao, Kim 338
xxiKim 340
xxiiQuiz Section
xxiii“It is best to be like water; Which benefits the ten thousand things and does not compete. It collects in the places which humans disdain to live…” – Daodejing, Fieser 161
xxiv“’Forget it – say it no more!’ said the carpenter. ‘It’s a worthless tree! Make boats out of it and they’d sink; make coffins and they’d rot in no time. Use it for doors and it would sweat sap like pine; use it for posts and the worms would eat them up. It’s not a timber tree – there’s nothing it can be used for. That’s how it got to be old!’” - Zhuangzhi, Fieser 174
xxvLecture, February 24, 2009
xxviQuiz Section
xxviiLecture, February 26, 2009
